The Ottoman press on the Somali fight against European imperialism

Research on the relationship between the Ottoman Empire and its counterparts on the Somali peninsula during the European colonial era remains relatively scarce. Fewer scholars have explored this from the perspective of Ottoman intellectuals and writers at a time when the sultan, Abdulhamid II, was attempting to position the Ottoman Empire, the last powerful and independent Muslim state, as a reliable supporter of Muslim nations resisting European imperialism. At the start of the 20th century, Somalia was one of those places where the Ottomans took an interest, as a local resistance movement, the Dervishes, fought back against British and Italian encroachment. This is reflected in the Ottoman press coverage of events in Somalia, as the Dervishes battled against Britain and Italy and their local allies. 

In the Ottoman press, news about Somalia appeared in the periodicals Sebîlürreşâd and İslam Mecmuası. The primary reason these two journals published articles on Somalia was their commitment to an Islamist perspective that embraced all Muslim communities beyond the borders of the Ottoman Empire.

In the early 20th century, pan-Islamist thought, which held significant sway in Ottoman intellectual circles, advocated for the political, economic, and cultural unity of Muslims, with the Ottoman Empire positioned at the centre of this project. Publications such as Sebîlürreşâd and İslam Mecmuası were attuned to the political, social, and economic challenges faced by Muslim societies outside the Ottoman territories, in line with this ideology. Their interest in Somalia was grounded in this broader vision of Islamic solidarity.

In this context, the articles and analyses published in both journals aimed to inform the public about political developments in Somalia, anti-colonial resistance movements, and Islamic structures in the region. Additionally, they sought to raise awareness among the Ottoman public and ruling elites about the conditions of Muslims in Africa. Despite the Ottoman Empire's declining position in international politics, these publications supported efforts to strengthen cultural and religious ties with Muslim communities. I have searched through the archives of these magazines and found several articles related to Somalis, which I intend to share below after introducing their ideas and editorial missions. 

Sebilürreşad

The periodical Sebilürreşad played a significant role in shaping and promoting Islamic thought during the late Ottoman period. Sebilürreşad Journal is a continuation of Sırat-ı Müstakim, which was first published in 1908 by politician and judge, Ebu’l Ulâ Zeynel Âbidin, and journalist, Eşref Edib. Its editorial policy centred on mobilising and uniting the Muslim community, emphasising the necessity of intellectual and social revival within the Islamic world.

A central aim of Sebilürreşad was to diagnose the causes of the scientific and military decline experienced by Muslims in the Ottoman Empire and beyond, particularly in contrast to the rapid advancements of European societies. Through its publications, the journal sought to propose solutions to these challenges, advocating for a collective awakening and the strengthening of Muslim solidarity. The Şuun (Events in English) section regularly featured news and analyses about Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Yemen, and Algeria, with particular attention given to Somalia. Additionally, reports on the conditions of Muslims in the Balkans, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Iran, India, Russia, and the Middle East were frequently included.

Sebilürreşad defined its mission in its first issue, stating that its goal was to help Muslims overcome the difficult conditions they were facing. 

İslâm Mecmuası 

The second news magazine whose contents will be presented is İslam Mecmuası (Islamic Magazine). Published between 1914 and 1918, İslam Mecmuası was a significant intellectual platform that also explored the reasons behind the perceived backwardness of the Islamic world. The journal focused on the social dimensions and functional aspects of Islam, addressing various themes such as the role of women in society, the conditions of Muslim communities beyond the Ottoman borders, the emergence of reformist movements in the Islamic world, economic concerns, and Islamic jurisprudence. It opposed the idea that Islam was a hindrance to progress and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani’s ideas around this influenced many of the magazine’s writers. A central objective of the journal was to synthesize Islamist and Turkish nationalist thought, reflecting the broader intellectual currents of the time.  

The first page of the first issue of the İslam Mecmuası. (Source: Turk Diyanet Vakfi).  

Prominent contributors to the magazine included figures such as Musa Kâzım, an Ottoman reformist and one-time Shaykh al-Islām, and Ziya Gökalp, a late Ottoman Turkish nationalist thinker and writer. 

Somalia and Yemen events (November 1911) 

The first article was published by Sebilürreşad on 30 November 1911. It appeared in volume 8, on page 15, of the magazine titled: “Somalia and Yemen events”. The broader context was Italy’s invasion of Libya at the end of September spurring the Ottoman elite into action as they faced the threat of losing their last north African province. Italy had a strong presence in East Africa, particularly in Somalia and Eritrea, at the time, and it appears that parts of the Ottoman elite sought the support of their co-religionists in the region against Italy. Here an Ottoman parliamentarian in Yemen says he received a letter from As-Sayyid Muhammad bin Abdullah Aluda-i'l-Mahdi, who is likely Muḥammad ibn 'Abdallāh Hassan the Dervish leader.  

Below is a screenshot from the magazine, followed by a translation of the article.

English: It was narrated by Sayyid Ahmed Yahya Al-Kabisi, one of the notables of Yemen and a former Ottoman parliamentarian: 

“I received a letter from Aden that As-Sayyid Muhammad bin Abdullah Aluda-i'l-Mahdi has called all the people of Berbera and Somalia to jihad and is preparing to move to the Italian border. The letter says that before this letter reaches us, we will receive news of the war with Italy.”   

Declaration of Holy Jihad (November 1911) 

The November 1911 issue of Sebilürreşad also contained a declaration of jihad. The declaration appears excited by a report that Muḥammad ibn 'Abdallāh Hassan, titled the leader of the Somalis, is marching against the Italians and possesses as much power as the Senussi of Libya. The declaration states: “The Somali tribes, who have always survived numerous foreign attacks on their prosperous coasts by retreating inland, are extremely brave, valiant, and warlike.” The document shows reasonable knowledge of the clan dynamics of Somalia referring to the Hawiye and Majeerteen clans. 

In order to alarm the Ottomans in Yemen, the Italian government, together with the traitor Idris, began to conspire with full vigour. However, the reaction of the Islamic world was not too late. Among the telegrams of the “Agency Colonial”, a telegram sent the previous day from Djibouti reported that the Muslims in general were in a fervour against the Italians and that the hatred and enmity against these enemies of Islam would never cease. It was read in Istanbul that Sayyid Muhammad ibn Abdullah Al-Wadad, the ruler of the Islamic continent of Somalia, had declared holy war against the Italians. Sayyid left his capital at the head of a powerful army to march on the neighbouring Italians. The Somali ruler has a force of more than 100,000 men. It is also known that this person has a power equal to the power of His Eminence the Sheikh of Senussi, if not first in the whole Islamic world. 

The Italian Government is rapidly deploying troops to counter the danger that has arisen on the border of the colony of Eritrea. 

Sayyid Ahmed El Kebsî Efendi, former Deputy for Yemen, who was the first to be informed of this important event, went to the Ministry of Interior last night and informed the Deputy Minister of Interior, Talat Bey. Talat Bey also made the necessary explanation to the Minister of War, Mahmud Şevket Pasha. The Somali tribes, who have always survived many foreign attacks on their prosperous coasts by retreating inland, are extremely brave, valiant and warlike. 

Every Somali goes into battle armed with a spear and a long black horn-handled machete tucked into his belt. Their chief carries a large broad-bladed, double-edged sword. Travellers say that Somalis can be distinguished from other peoples and tribes in Africa by their tall stature, slender build (thinness), warlike nature and dark colour. At a glance, they are thought to be a group of dark-coloured European men. Among Somalis, the Majerteen are distinguished by the dignity and seriousness of their behaviour. Islam is the only sect of Somalis. They are generally not urbanised. Although travellers estimate their number up to one million, it is difficult to know their real population. Somalis are divided into three major groups. The Rehsanevis in the south, the Havriyas in the centre and the Hasheryas in the north. The largest and most important alliance is the alliance of the Magurteyn, which consists of about thirty tribes and occupies the entire north-east of the country and is under the rule of a ruler. 

It will be recalled that in 1889, on the basis of agreements which the Italians claimed to have signed with local tribal chiefs, and in particular with the rulers of Obbia and the Majerteens, they seized the whole of the Somali continent from Kısmaayo in the North to Cape Bedevî, claiming to establish settlements. These coasts are more than 1200 kilometres long. In 1891, as a result of a treaty signed with Britain, the Italians’ right to settle on this continent was finally recognised, but this has not been enforced so far and today it forms part of Masawwa. His Holiness the Ruler of Somalia is now declaring a holy war against the Italians. Now the Somalis, who are as brave as the Abyssinians and worthy of fear, are putting the Italians in a difficult situation again. 

Ali Riza Seyfi and the Red Sea (March 1912)

The following article appeared on 14 March 1912 and was written by Ali Riza Seyfi. He was a translator, novelist, and historian who took an interest, throughout his career, in the political affairs of the empire. The article appeared in volume 8 on page 25. I wasn’t able to find an image of the article but only its text: 

In 1886, following a proposal, General Haig embarked on a journey by ship to assess the extent to which the coasts of the Red Sea in Arabia and the Somali region in Africa were open to missionary activities. His route included stops at Mount Sinai, Yanbu, Jeddah, Suakin, Massawa, and Hudaydah before reaching Aden. At that time, two well-known and influential missionaries were present in Aden, seeking a gateway for deeper penetration into the interior regions. 

One of these missionaries accompanied General Haig from Aden to Hudaydah, where he stayed for a while, offering both free medical services and missionary work. General Haig’s journey continued from Hudaydah overland to Sana’a and from Yemen back to Aden. From there, he traveled along the entire coastline, eventually reaching Muscat, Basra, and Baghdad. His route then extended across the Syrian Desert, ultimately bringing him to Damascus. 

As a result of this long and arduous journey, General Haig authored two works: On Both Shores of the Red Sea and Arabia from a Missionary Perspective. 

To take a lesson (March 1912)

Later that same month, Ali Riza Seyfi wrote another article, again following the activities of Western missionaries aiming to propagate their faith in the nations of the Red Sea. This article was published in Sebilürreşad on 28 March. In it, Seyfi appears to have made available a report by a man named Keith Falconer, a Scottish missionary in Aden, Yemen and Arabist. Falconer provides his impressions upon arriving in the city and the opportunities it presents for converting its residents to Christianity. Falconer believed Aden is the most opportune place to proselytise due to its climate. 

Here is Keith Falconer’s report:

The population of the city of Aden is made up of 1-Arabs, almost all of whom are Sunnis and follow the Shafi'i sect, 2-Africans, almost all of them Somalis, who are also Shafi'i, 3- Jews, 4- Indian people, most of whom are Muslims and the rest Hindus, and some Pars and Portuguese from the city of Gava. In 1872, the number of Somalis in the city did not reach three for every five Arabs, whereas today (i.e. in 1885), the population of both is declared to be equal, and the Somali Muslims of the Arabs make up the bulk of the population, about five-fourths. Whereas in 1872 the Jews numbered 1435, today (in 1885) they exceed two thousand. Europeans number about four thousand. Aden's climate can be considered beneficial for health among hot countries. According to the government doctor who has been here for five consecutive years, there is no need to worry about the health of the missionaries in Aden, which is due to the absence of rain and vegetation and the influence of the constant breeze. The truth is that the summer heat, though really terrible, does not harm the health. There is no doubt that the city of Aden is the most important and most suitable place for the spread of Christianity among the Muslims of Africa and the Arabian peninsula, because of its geographical characteristics, its internal political relations, its trade with Yemen, its favourable climate and the mixture of Arab and Somali people. "The second issue is this: My idea is to establish a school, an industrial school for the poor, children and orphans, a hospital and a medical aid centre in the vicinity of Sheikhosman. Here, as everywhere else, children have more hope than great men, and the hospital and medical aid centre will not only bring great benefits in Sheikhosman, but will also help us to penetrate further inland.

In Aden, there are many Somali Muslim children who are virtually thrown on the streets: Their parents, who are poor and miserable, are willing to allow them to be brought up and fed by someone else. These wretches and orphans should be collected from the streets and dark corners and brought up in the Christian religion. Since it is necessary for these small converts to acquire a trade, it is expected that carpenters, blacksmiths or people belonging to one of the other industries will be sent among our delegation from both England and Indian centres. However, the most important and main task of the delegation will be to train Bible scholars and preachers from the local and African converts. It is absolutely necessary for these local preachers to be knowledgeable even about medical knowledge. With a light, superficial knowledge of medicine and surgery, these new preachers will find many opportunities open before them. In the school, everyone will be taught to read, write and calculate through the Arabic Bible and other Christian books, and those who make progress will be taught English, geography, history, engineering, mathematics and natural sciences.

Italy’s eastern colony and country of Somalia, Ali Riza Seyfi (October 1912) 

Seyfi wrote another article on 24 October 1912. The article introduces the readers of Sebilürreşad to the political geography of northeast Somalia, in the region that roughly corresponds to present-day Galmudug. Seyfi explains who rules the region and the type of relationship these men had with the Italians. The Sultanate of Hobyo, Seyfi reports, entered into an agreement with Italy, meaning its foreign relations were overseen by Rome. This article appeared on volume 9, page 80 of Sebilürreşad.  

This is the text in Seyfi’s article:  

Here, let us talk about the political adventures of some of the Somali sultans, some of whom are quite numerous, with Italy: Firstly, let us say that: The Islamic tribes of Somalia are a large and vast country in an unclaimed corner of the north of Africa, which is scattered and divided into many tribes. Somali territory is partly under the control of France and partly under the control of Italy.  

In 1889, the Sultanate of Obya Somalia on the Somali coast from 50 33‘ north latitude to 20 3’ latitude was placed under the protectorate of Italy. Five or six months later this protectorate was extended from latitude 50 33‘ to latitude 80 03’ and this was made possible by agreements with the Sultan of the Somali tribes of Majerteen. According to this agreement, the Sultan of Majerteen agreed not to enter into direct agreements with any other state concerning the rest of his territory without the consent of Italy. In August 1901, this agreement was consolidated by another agreement. In 1892, 180 miles inland from the Somali coast, including the harbours of Brawa, Merka, Mogadishu, Vah Sheikh and Mogadishu, were ceded to Italy directly by the Sultan of Zangibar, and in 1893 the actual administration of the country by the Italians began. The border between the British and Italian spheres of influence in eastern Africa was established on 24 March 1891 and renewed on 5 May 1894. This border extends from the mouth of the (Jawba/Caba) canal to the 2nd circle of latitude, breaks at right angles to the east and reaches 950 kilometres to the east and ends at the Nile River (Mai Nile). There are approximately 400,000 British inhabitants in the four corners of the 100,000 miles of the Italian-dominated country of Somalia.  

The Revenge of Islam: The Triumphant Course of Islam in Africa (May 1914) 

This article is both interesting because of its contents but also because of who wrote it. The author is Tevfik Süveydî (Tawfiq al-Suwaidi), a former Iraqi prime minister, who appears to have taken an interest in the fate of Islam in Africa. He was a senior Iraqi official from the late 1920s until the 1950s, when the monarchical regime in Baghdad was overthrown. This article appeared in İslam Mecmuası on 21 May, 1914. It was on page 245. It provides a simplistic overview for readers about the Islamic nations of the Sahel region and eastern Africa. Here is the text, but an archival document wasn’t available in this case.  

Here is the text written by al-Suwaidi:  

The states of Angola, Somalia, Furien and Galla converted to Islam at different times. In the eighteenth century, the people of Niger, called Follah, who were likened to the fellahs of Egypt, converted to Islam and became the strongest and most courageous defenders of the religion. The spread of Islam, whose source was the colleges of Egypt and the madrasas of Tripolitania, was parallel to the provisions of the Qur’an. Even the European occupation could not prevent this trend from continuing! After the French, the British also suffered the bitter consequences of this trend in their colonies in Somalia.

Italy, whose people in the colonies of Tripolitania, Eritrea and Somalia are entirely Muslim, shows that it is pursuing a completely different policy from the policy pursued by the great powers in the colonies until now. This state, which cares about nothing but its own interests, wants to leave even its northern neighbour France behind with great courage.

The Event of Islam, On Somalia (July 1914)

The next article is a news report published on 30 July, 1914 in İslam Mecmuası. It appeared just two days after world war one broke out in Europe when Austria’s declaration against Serbia. Just a few weeks prior, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, had been assassinated in Sarajevo, Bosnia. It reports on a British move against an unnamed figure referred to as the Mullah who they intend to attack. This is likely Muḥammad ibn 'Abdallāh Hassan, the Dervish leader. It finishes with a prayer: “May Allah help our brothers.” The archive document for this was available and you can take a look at it below.  

Here is the text:  

Mullah, who had a reputation in the Somali lands around Aden, caused significant damage to the British officers and soldiers with whom he had been fighting for some time. For this reason, the British thought of sending a military unit against Mullah’s forces and many camels were provided from Egypt for this purpose. May Allah help our brothers.  

The Movements of the Muslims Against the British (November 1915) 

This next article is also a news story which appeared in the Sebilürreşad journal. It was published 30 November 1915 with a long title: “The Movements of the Muslims Against the British and Their Declarations of Jihad”. It appeared in volume 12, page 243. It reports on fighting between Somalis and the British near Aden. It isn’t clear if by near Aden they mean on the other side of the Gulf of Aden or if there were so many Somalis in Aden, that there was mobilisation there against the UK.  

Here is the text:  

The fighting between the British and the Somali tribes in the vicinity of Aden, which had been going on for several months, has come to an end. In the last conflict, the British suffered material and moral damage and lost their most valuable officers. This time, the fire of war between the Somalis and the British started to flare up again. The entry of British Protestant missionaries into the Somalis' areas, the missionaries' attempts to deceive the young men, women and women of Somalis with various gifts and tricks in order to encourage them to convert to Christianity, and their attempts to give them beads, red-coloured fabrics, bracelets and cords made of nickel and other similar eye-catching things to encourage them to convert to Christianity constituted a reason for the war to ignite again. Aware of the missionaries' deception, the spiritual head of the Somali tribes (Mullah) ordered the tribes to kill the missionary priests and nuns. The elimination of all of them was actually started. Considering these actions of the Somalis too much, the British started the war with the Somalis again. But there is no doubt that the British will be defeated this time as before. Because the Mullah declared jihad against the infidels, and thus the deceitful treatment of the British missionaries against the Somalis, who were tightly embraced to each other, forced them to stand up in every endeavour.  

Skirmishes with the UK in Berbera (November, 1915) 

This article is also a news report in Sebilürreşad dated 30 November 1915, by which time World War One was well underway and the Ottoman Empire found itself aligned against the UK, alongside its allies, Germany and Austria. The writers we have shared thus far viewed the activities of the UK and Italy with suspicion in Africa, but now they were writing at a time of open war against London, Paris, and Moscow. Around this time the UK was fighting Muḥammad ibn 'Abdallāh Hassan and the Dervishes in northern Somalia. The report looks at an attack his forces carried out against the British garrison in Berbera. It also wrongly claims that Hassan was elected then as leader of the Somalis. He had been leading the Dervishes for some time at that point which isn’t a group whose authority was recognised outside its territories in northeastern Somalia. 

Here is a translation of the text:  

After the Somali people attacked Barbera and eliminated the British there, they declared their independence and elected Mullah Abdullah and Mullah Mohammed as their leaders. They also cut the British cable (telegraph line). No matter how much the British deny this fact, all Somali people are standing up.  

Evaluation of how the Ottoman press thought about Somalia (1911-1915)

The news on Somalia published in the Ottoman press in 1911, 1912, 1914, and 1915 largely focused on the occupation of Somalia by Italy or Britain. In general, news from the African continent in the Ottoman press, especially from the last quarter of the 19th century until the beginning of the 20th century and the end of World War I, was predominantly centred on Libya and Egypt. News about other parts of Africa is relatively rare. In this context, the reports on Somalia in the Ottoman press during this period are limited to those analysed within the scope of this research.

The Ottoman press treated the African continent as a unified whole and generally considered its population to be part of the Islamic world. This approach reflected the religious and cultural ties between the Muslim communities on the continent and the Ottoman Empire. In the final period of the Ottoman Empire, the struggle for survival against the increasing military and political pressure of Western Europe coincided with the fight for independence of African peoples against a common enemy. This situation paved the way for the strengthening of the spirit of solidarity and brotherhood between the Ottoman Empire and the Muslim communities in Africa.

The support given by the Ottoman press to the Somali people’s struggle for independence was rooted in the Ottoman imperial tradition of siding with oppressed peoples. There are two main reasons for this support. The first is the military cooperation the Ottoman Empire developed with regional actors in defending African lands against the colonial occupation of Western powers since the 16th century, as well as the historical ties established in this regard. These historical connections are based on the shared religious identity of the Somali people and Ottoman society, and the responsibility of the Ottoman Empire, as a great power, to protect Muslim communities.

The second reason is the geostrategic position of Somalia. The Somali coast was located on a critical route for the Ottoman Empire to maintain its position in the Middle East and the Arabian Peninsula. The fact that the colonial powers occupying Somali lands were also partners with the actors posing a threat to Ottoman territories turned the struggle of the Ottoman Empire and the Somali people into a common front. The news in the Ottoman press reflects the sensitivity and support shown against the occupation of Somalia as the defence of part of the Ottoman lands.